Teenage single mothers who solicit family members to assist them in their parenting responsibilities often do not neglect their children (Worth, 1992). Maternal grandmothers commonly play an instrumental role in supporting teenage single mothers in the care of their children. They usually provide housing, monetary support or childcare assistance; and in many situations, assume the role of the co-parent. The involvement of maternal grandmothers can either impede or promote father involvement depending on how secure the relationship allows the adolescent mother feel in her ability to raise her child.

Although reports indicate that the rate of teenage pregnancies have stabilized in the last few years, adolescent single-parent families exist in every community, and confront unique problems that are often difficult to address. According to Developmental Specialists, pairing adolescence with the responsibilities of motherhood places teenage mothers at emotional risk and compromises their development.

Assuming a parenting role at such a young age is an overwhelming experience for all teenage mothers. They struggle with negotiating their own physical, social, and psychological developmental changes while supporting the developmental of a child. However, those who are developmentally more advanced are usually more successful at parenting (Eshbaugh, Lempers & Luze, 2006).

Many teenage single mothers drop out of school once they become pregnant. They ultimately become socially isolated, experience loneliness and feelings of failure, and are uncertain about their future. Lack of acceptance from family members makes a teenage single mother vulnerable to future pregnancies and places her at risk for academic failures. On the other hand, if supported in their parenting role, a teenage single mother is usually willing to return to school, complete her education and achieve her long-term goals.

Contrary to the perception of many, the teenage single-mother population does not primarily comprise of black, urban girls, but includes girls of all races and classes from urban and non-urban communities. Moreover, research findings reveals that in the United States, the teenage single -parent population is greater in non-urban areas, especially among African American teenagers who reside in low-income households (Eshbaugh, Lempers & Luze, 2006).

The social environment, positive relationships, the availability of supports, and how the teenage single mother views her situation influences her ability to be an effective parent. Those who maintain a positive outlook on parenting while embracing the sacrifices that they are required to make are more likely to feel a sense of accomplishment instead of failure in there parenting role. Moreover, they acquire positive role identity, increased stability, and secure bonds with their children. Teenage single- mothers are different from other teenagers and other single parents because they face the challenge of balancing their adolescent impulses with the responsibilities of parenting.

Researchers have found that the stressors experienced by never-married single mothers differ from those experienced by single mothers whose status is the outcome of death or divorce because of the differences in the two circumstances. While some of the problems that single mothers face may be universal, those who choose the status may face unique challenges because of society’s perception and attitude regarding their decision.

In relation to financial resources, single mothers who were previously in a partnered relationship may have acquired financial assets during the course of their marriage, and those who are victims of death may more likely receive financial support from the community. On the other hand, those who were never married may suffer long-term financial struggles, unless they were financially stable prior to becoming a single parent. Studies reveal that single women who adopt are educated, with above average income, adopt a child in order to fulfill their own needs, and therefore can financially afford to raise a child (Miller, 1992). Single parents who adopt children are more reliant on extended family members and friends for longer periods and perceive outside support to be essential to the child’s adjustment.

Never-married single mothers are younger in age, with less money and often require some type of outside support. They are less likely to have shared parenting arrangements, and thus rely more on friends and family for parenting assistance. They seek out and embrace outside support, and view it as essential to their functioning. The dependence on outside support can often result in some single mothers having multiple fatherless children due to multiple failed relationships, and further compromises their ability to overcome challenges. While a high percentage of this population of single mothers usually experience short-term struggles, they are able to bounce back if they receive the support that they need to progress and ultimately triumphant in overcoming their struggles.

Divorced or separated single mothers, in contrast, receive less outside support, perceive their situation as a major life setback, and are more vulnerable to long-term stressors. They experience more emotional trauma than those who have never been married, and struggle with a heightened sense of loss- loss of a partner, loss of finances and in some instances loss of a home, relatives and friends. The life challenges of divorced or separated single mothers often begin long before the actual divorce or separation occurs, may continue long after, and may involve relationship conflict, elevating levels of distress, and increased vulnerability to stress. In addition, this population may less likely seek, or be receptive to support from friends and family members due to their perception that their struggles are the consequence of their failed marriage.

In examining the differences between never-married single mothers and those who were once married, the level of emotional stability and functioning appears to be contingent upon family history, the family members’ perception of their life circumstance, and the availability of a support network. Furthermore, survival for the single parent who is experiencing divorce or separation is more complicated because they often also face dual tasks of rebuilding their lives while assuming sole parenting responsibilities for their children. It appears that for the later group, the ability to overcome the challenges of the separation is contingent upon their marital history, ability to overcome the loss, and the willingness to acquire and rely on support networks. On the other hand, never married single mothers may experience more difficulty overcoming their challenges due to complacency or struggles with becoming self-sufficient.

The stress of having to find ways to provide food, shelter and clothing for the family consequently places single parents at risk of becoming detached from their children, and compromises their ability to effectively parent. Effective parenting is characterized by consistent supervision and monitoring of children’s activities, emotional support, discipline, direct interactions, displays of affection, and secure attachment.
John Bowlby’s attachment theory suggests that secure attachment between parents and children make parenting easier. On the other hand, insecure attachment (which is likely to be seen in the relationships between absent single parents and their children) can result in the ineffectiveness of parenting strategies, and an overwhelming amount of stress on parents as they endeavor to carry out their parenting responsibilities.

Family disruption, regardless of the circumstances often occurs after family conflict, leads to unexpected change, and is often the source of loss and grief. Traumatic experiences such as broken homes and family dysfunction results in depressive symptoms. Moreover, studies have also associated broken homes and family dysfunction to mental and physical health issues.

Like individuals who lose their partners as a result of death, those who experience divorce also go through a healing process which is exemplified through denial, guilt, anger, depression and isolation. Some victims of family disruption seek healing by engaging in risky behaviors that serve to numb their pain such as drug and alcohol use and thus, further compromise their emotional health, while also risking their physical health.
According to theoretical perspective of Sigmund Freud, the human psyche is by nature pleasure seeking. This therefore implies that in situations of emotional crisis and sadness it is an appropriate response for a single parent who is experiencing the pain of separation to resort to behaviors, which although may be risky, provides her with the gratification she may need to deal with the pain.

In order to take care of their family’s needs, single parents rely on a plethora of external supports in. They solicit the support of friends and family, and the social welfare system. Results of studies indicate that a high percentage of single parents are welfare dependent, particularly those who have minimal education and are unable to acquire a job that supports the cost of childcare in addition to the other needs of their families.

For years, policy makers have focused on weaning single parents off welfare and empowering them to become more self-reliant. Even though they have advocated that work force participation is the antidote to welfare dependency, they struggle in their efforts to encourage some single parents to deviate from the complacency of not having to work and unemployment among single mothers is very profound.

There is a theoretical argument why some single parents prefer to be dependent on the social welfare system instead of going to work. B.F. Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning suggests that individuals tend to repeat behaviors that lead to favorable results. Therefore, aligned with Skinner’s theory is the notion that due to the positive reinforcement of single parents’ welfare dependency, they are resistant to becoming self reliant because they have experienced that being on welfare will allowed the opportunity for them to parent their children while being afforded the means to address additional family needs. Furthermore, childcare issues and single parents’ inability to manage their time between parenting and work responsibilities negate the efforts to encourage single-mother self-reliance.

Studies reveal that most single mothers who opt to obtain full-time employment and get off welfare ultimately earn only a minute amount more than welfare recipients which is used for additional expenses related to them working such as childcare and transportation costs.

In Australia, ethical shifts have similarly resulted in escalating divorce rates, and single parent births that have led to changes in family structure, and a rise in the single parent phenomenon.   Webber & Boromeo (2005) projects that by the year 2021 there will be approximately 1.2 million Australian, single-parent families.

Studies revealed that sixty percent of Australian single mothers with young children do not acquire paid employment because of issues with securing childcare. Because of a deficiency in childcare help in some areas of Australia, women with children, (particularly younger children) are more likely to stay at home to tend to their childcare responsibilities while sacrificing their financial earnings.

The extended family continues to have a strong presence in Australia. As a result, many single parents rely on emotional and practical support from their relatives to help them manage their responsibilities. The level of support that a single parent receives nevertheless varies according to the reason for the single-parent status and the moral and religious practices within their community. Religious communities in Australia shun divorced single parents.

India is not exempted from the revolution in family dynamics and structure that the other nations have experienced due to divorce, the loss of men through death and imprisonment, absentee fathers, and other forms of family disruption.  The majority of single parent families in India are mother headed because it is not common for a mother to abandon her family.

With the father traditionally being the primary financial supporter of the Indian family, his absence results in a drastic decrease in the family’s income, and in extreme cases, poverty.  Most single mothers in India have limited education or job skills, and as a result do not acquire high-paying jobs.  In many instances, they make just enough to provide only the basic needs for their family.

Another challenge that Indian single mothers face is disciplining their children. Since the father is perceived to be the primary disciplinarian in Indian families, mothers are usually not adequately prepared to assume the disciplinarian role in the absence of the resulting in behavioral issues among the children.

The Israeli society is also making slow progress towards accepting the transition from the traditional family structure to the contemporary single-parent family. Moreover, in the last few decades more women in Israel are choosing to become single mothers by choice due to an escalating trend of single, older women opting to have babies. According to the Israel Bureau of Statistics (2003), the number of single women 40 years and over who are opting to have children is rapidly increasing.  Contrary to women who involuntarily entered into single-parenthood, Israeli women who choose to become single mothers are usually more educated, financially independent and are receive support from friends and relatives. Nevertheless, due to the religious orientation of the Israeli society and the religious laws that govern family dynamics, single mothers, regardless of the reason for the status are stigmatized and socially isolated.

Despite traditional Chinese family values, the number of single-parent families in Hong Kong has tripled in the last 10 years primarily due the rise in divorce rates. However, due to the high level of virtuousness amongst Chinese communities, and a value system regarding conflict resolution, family harmony and marital sacrifices, the single-parent family is considered problematic, broken or dysfunctional.

A high percentage of Chinese single parents are welfare dependent but are highly invested in the care and well-being of their children.  As a result, they battle with the desire to be responsible citizens versus the need to be effective parents. This leads to their continued reliance on the government to support their needs.
Today, the single-parent phenomenon has filtered into African societies for reasons that are comparable to those identified in other nations of the world.  Marriage is devalued, and extended family support for children without fathers has decreased.  Many African families now encounter family separation resulting from infidelity, and violence. In addition, widowed parents are no longer finding it easy to remarry, the rise in poverty is preventing extended families from supporting children who have lost a parent, and pregnancies outside of marriage are becoming a common practice among young women, especially educated women who view marriage negatively.  Poverty is seen as analogous to single-parenthood in Kenya, and has resulted in associated ills such as family violence and the abandonment of children, which ultimately leads to an increase in single-parent families.